Types (Disinformation)

Disinformation can appear in various forms. Firstly, different formats be manipulated, such as texts, images, and videos. Secondly, the amount degree of falseness vary, from completely fabricated content to decontextualized information satire that intentionally misleads recipients. Therefore, forms format disinformation might vary differ not only between supposedly clear categories “true” “false”. Field application/theoretical foundation: Studies on types are conducted fields, e.g. political communication, journalism studies, media effects studies. Among other things, studies identify most common mis- or during certain events (Brennen, Simon, Howard, & Nielsen, 2020), analyze categorize behavior Twitter accounts (Linvill Warren, investigate existence serveral “junk news” national landscapes (Bradshaw, Kollanyi, Neudert, 2020; 2019). References/combination with methods data collection: Only relatively few use combinations methods. Some via qualitative quantitative analyses (Bradshaw et al., Brennen Linvill Neudert Others surveys respondents’ concerns well exposure towards (Fletcher, 2018). Example studies: al. (2020); Bradshaw Warren (2020) Information example Types defined by presentation contextualization sometimes additionally details (e.g. professionalism) about communicator. either deductively (Brennen 2020) applying theoretical framework Wardle (2019), inductively build based 2020). Table 1. mis-/disinformation Category Specification Satire parody - False connection Headlines, visuals captions don’t support Misleading frame an issue individual, when facts/information misrepresented skewed context Genuine is shared false contextual information, real images which have been taken out Imposter sources, news outlets government agencies, impersonated Fabricated Content made up 100% false; designed deceive do harm Manipulated imagery manipulated deceive, deepfakes kinds manipulation audio and/or Note. The adapted (2019). coding instruction was: “To best your ability, what type misinformation it? (Select one fits best.)” 2020, p. 12). coders reached intercoder reliability a Cohen’s kappa 0.82. 2. Criteria for label Reference Professionalism refers authors organization “Sources employ standards practices professional journalism, including authors, editors, owners” (pp. 174-175). “Distinct user-generated citizen junk domains satisfy professionalism criterion because they purposefully refrain providing publishers, owners, publish corrections debunked information” (p. 176). Procedure: Systematically checked pages domains: Contact ownership relating Reviewed whether sources appeared third-party fact-checking reports Checked published fact-checked reporting. Examples: zerohedge.com, conservative- fighters.org, deepstatenation.news Counterfeit layout design domain itself “(…) [S]ources mimic established reporting using fonts, having branding, employing strategies. (…) Junk stylistically disguised inclusion references agencies credible headlines written tone date, time, location stamps. In extreme cases, will copy logos counterfeit entire domains” reviewed organizational owner headquarters checking like Wikipedia, WHOIS database, fact-checkers (like Politico MediaBiasFactCheck) Consulted country-specific expert knowledge landscape US counterfeiting websites. politicoinfo.com, NBC.com.co Style whole “ [S]tyle concerned literary devices language used throughout Designed systematically manipulate users purposes, deploy propaganda techniques persuade at emotional, rather than cognitive, level include emotionally driven emotive expressions symbolism, ad hominem attacks, misleading headlines, exaggeration, excessive capitalization, unsafe generalizations, logical fallacies, moving lots pictures mobilizing memes, innuendo (Bernays, 1928; Jowette O’Donnell, 2012; Taylor, 2003). Stylistically, problematic clickbait varying degrees. As result, determining style highly complex dependent” 177). Examined least five stories front page each source depth presidential campaign 2016 SOTU address 2018 articles visual Considered if three exhibited elements 100percentfedup.com, barenakedislam.com, theconservativetribune.com, dangerandplay.com Credibility rely conspiracy theories post corrections” 175). “[They] typically report unsubstantiated claims conspiratorial dubious sources. credibility frequently fail vet their consult multiple fact-check” 178). were cited see included known issues climate change, vaccination, “Pizzagate” evidence infowars.com, endingthefed.com, thegatewaypundit.com, newspunch.com Bias [H]yper-partisan websites blogs biased, ideologically skewed, opinion pieces news. Basing same events, these manage convey strikingly impressions actually transpired. It systematic differences mapping facts we call bias. exists both sides spectrum. Like style, bias 177-178). evaluate If was evaluated third party, examined ideological leaning appearing Evaluation labeling politicians (are there left right?) Identified created through omission unfavorable facts, writing falsely presented being objective Examples right: breitbart.com, dailycaller.com, truthfeed.com left: occupydemocrats.com, addictinginfo.com, bipartisanreport.com Krippendorff’s 0.89. fulfilling criteria. deliberately misleading, deceptive, incorrect packaged 3. IRA-associated Right troll “Twitter-handles broadcast nativist right-leaning populist messages. These handles’ themes distinct mainstream Republicanism. They rarely traditionally important Republican themes, taxes, abortion, regulation, but often sent divisive messages moderate Republicans. overwhelming majority handles, however, had limited identifying profile attractive, young women” 5). Hashtags accounts: #MAGA (i.e., “Make America Great Again,”), #tcot (i.e. “Top Conservative Twitter), #AmericaFirst, #IslamKills Left “These handles socially liberal messages, focus cultural identity. discussed gender sexual identity (e.g., #LGBTQ) religious #MuslimBan), primarily focused racial Just Troll attacked politicians, Democratic particularly Hillary Clinton. worth noting this account also substantial portion no motivation” 6). #BlackLivesMatter, #PoliceBrutality, #BlackSkinIsNotACrime Newsfeed overwhelmingly themselves U.S. local aggregators descriptive names (…). linked legitimate regional tweeted interest A small number global issues, pro-Russia perspective” #news, #sports, #local Hashtag gamer dedicated almost entirely playing hashtag games, popular word game played Twitter. Users add tweet #ThingsILearnedFromCartoons) then answer implied question. posted tweets seemed regarding games some Trolls, it possible employed form camouflage, means accruing followers, both. Other tweets, mundane (…)” 7). #ToDoListBeforeChristmas, #ThingsYouCantIgnore, #MustBeBanned, #2016In4Words Fearmonger spread crisis abroad. Such non-existent outbreaks Ebola Atlanta Salmonella New York, explosion Columbian Chemicals plan Louisiana, phosphorus leak Idaho, nuclear plant accidents war crimes perpetrated Ukraine. great deal innocent, frivolous song lyrics lines poetry) potentially automated. With added hashtags #love #rap changed sporadically disinformation, output produced client produce content. category where observed inconsistency activity. briefly manner consistent switched tweeting vice-versa” #Fukushima2015 #ColumbianChemicals identified qualitatively analyzing refined explored more detailed analysis. alpha intercoder-reliability 0.92. References Bradshaw, S., P. N., B., L.?M. (2020). Sourcing automation over social United States, 2016-2018. Political Communication, 37(2), 173–193. Brennen, J. F. M., N. [P. N.], R. K. Types, covid-19 misinformation. Reuters Institute. Retrieved http://www.primaonline.it/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/COVID-19_reuters.pdf Fletcher, (2018). Misinformation unpacked. http://www.digitalnewsreport.org/survey/2018/misinformation-and-disinformation-unpacked/ Linvill, D. L., L. factories: Manufacturing specialized 1–21. L.?M., P., B. European elections. Social Media + Society, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305119863147 Wardle, C. First Draft's essential guide understanding disorder. UK: Draft News. https://firstdraftnews.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Information_Disorder_Digital_AW.pdf?x76701